David Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion Essay...

In Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion we are introduced to three characters that serve the purpose to debate God and his nature, more specifically, what can mankind infer about God and his nature. The three characters; Demea, Philo, and Cleanthes all engage in a debate concerning this question and they all serve the purpose of supporting their views on the subject. It is the â€Å"argument from design† put forth by Cleanthes that is the focal point of the discussion, and it is Demea and Philo who attempt to discredit it. It is Cleanthes who gets the ball rolling in Part II of Hume by laying out his â€Å"argument from design.† Cleanthes believes that there is ample evidence in the nature that surrounds us to draw conclusions†¦show more content†¦Demea’s first argument against Cleanthes comes directly after the explanation of the â€Å"argument from design† in Part II. Demea disapproves of Cleanthes reasoning because Cleanthes’ arguments are a posteriori. He objects to this because he believes that human experience is necessary in explaining the nature of god. â€Å"Can we reach no further in this subject than experience and probability?†(837) This is evidence of Demea’s insistence that understanding God is outside the grasps of standard human experiences and his nature cannot be explained by looking at ours. This line of reasoning continues in Part III when Demea responds to Cleanthes analogy of a book to illustrate the similarities of the mind of man and that of God. Demea states that when reading a book we can comprehend the ideas put forth by an author, but we can never comprehend the riddles of the universe put forth by a Deity because, in the words of Demea, â€Å"his ways are not our ways.† Demea than uses this inference by Cleanthes to state another of his greatest objections with the â€Å"argument from design.† Demea says, â€Å" By representing the Deity as so intelligible and comprehensible, and so similar to human mind, we areShow MoreRelatedDavid Humes Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion Essay1524 Words   |  7 PagesDavid Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion provide conflicting arguments about the nature of the universe, what humans can know about it, and how their knowledge can affect their religious beliefs. The most compelling situation relates to philosophical skepticism and religion; the empiricist character, Cleanthes, strongly defends his position that skepticism is b eneficial to religious belief. Under fire from an agnostic skeptic and a rationalist, the empiricist view on skepticism and religionRead MoreEssay on An Analysis of Humes Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion4493 Words   |  18 PagesAn Analysis of Humes Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion ABSTRACT: Humes Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779) may be read in the way Cleanthes (and Philo as well) reads Nature, as analogous to human artifice and contrivance. The Dialogues and Nature then are both texts, with an intelligent author or Author, and analogies may be started from these five facts of Humes text: the independence of Humes characters; the non-straightforwardness of the characters discourse; the way theRead MoreWilliam Paley And David Hume1260 Words   |  6 PagesAristotle. This discussion will focus on the differing works of authors William Paley and David Hume and I will argue that there is an Intelligent Designer for our universe. William Paley believes in the existence of God and that through his watchmaker analogy in â€Å"Natural Theology† he can prove that there is an Intelligent Designer. David Hume addresses William Paley’s argument in â€Å"Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion† and argues Paley’s analogy is weak since Hume believes we cannot analogize earthlyRead MoreImmanuel Kant And Kant On Morality1097 Words   |  5 Pagesanother, Immanuel Kant and David Hume. Immanuel Kant had many theories throughout his philosophical time. Here are some of his ethical works, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and the Metaphysics of Morals (1797), which contains both â€Å"the Doctrine of Right† and â€Å"the Doctrine of Virtue.† He also had some other works of importance to his moral philosophy including the Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790), Religion within the Boundaries of MereRead MoreThe Relationship Bet ween Religion And Science1339 Words   |  6 Pagesrelationship between religion and science. For example, the question has been raised whether science and religion give the same kind of knowledge, thus competing with one another. The alternate view is that they give different kinds of knowledge, thereby complementing one another. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian scientist who addressed this issue. A bit later, the English philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) similarly discussed the kinds of knowledge that can be obtained from religion and scienceRead MoreThe Problem Of Evil And The Design Argument1487 Words   |  6 Pages Problem of Evil and The Design Argument In order to explain the â€Å"Problem of Evil†, how it figures in Hume’s discussion of the argument from design and whether there is a personal acceptance of it, each point needs to be examined. Hume’s Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion utilizes three characters to represent difference perspectives to the existence of God: Cleanthes, Demea, and Philo. Cleanthes is a skeptic that provides the key voice to the argument from design. Philo, said toRead MoreAnalysis of Diaglogues Concerning Natural Religion by David Hume1445 Words   |  6 PagesWord Count: Professor Nelson Philosophical Perspectives 12 October 2012 Writing Assignment #1 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion by David Hume is a philosophical piece concerning the existence of God. Arguments for and against the existence of God are portrayed in dialogue through three characters; Demea, Cleanthes, and Philo. All three agree that God exists, but they drastically differ in their opinions of God’s attributes or characteristics, and if man can understand God. The charactersRead MoreTeleological Argument for the Existence of God Essay2079 Words   |  9 Pagesput forward by William Paley in 1802, in his Natural Theology. Paley offers an argument from design that purports to show a clear and distinct reason why one should hold a belief in God, due to the inherent features of the world. It is attempted in this paper to firstly: show that the argument should be rejected on the grounds of lacking a rationally flowing set of premises and conclusions; and secondly: that the criticisms made by David Hume concerning the argument hold more weight than is ge nerallyRead MoreIslam Does Not Promote Violence And Terrorism2040 Words   |  9 Pagesthoughts and beliefs to reason correctly before judging the Islamic religion to be promoting violence. People instead of judging all people in Islam and any religion, should be thinking more maturely as to who is the evil doer, instead of taking their anger out on innocent people and the wellbeing in society to keep a unity in the world. However, another famous philosopher whom I disagree with who argues Peirce’s methods of belief is David Hume. Hume believes that of which to avoid all problems, all religiousRead MoreThe Teleological Argument For The Existence Of Intelligent Design1273 Words   |  6 Pagesprovide strong support for intelligent design, there are also well-developed theories that oppose the teleological argument. A philosopher who presents several contradicting arguments to the teleological argument is David Hume. In his writing, The Dialogue Concerning Natural Religion, he presents his critique of the teleological argument and expresses his opposition through the fictional character Philo. In one of his critiques he states that although we may know how a part of nature works, it does

Law and Ethics for Business Owners - 1811 Words

Entrepreneurship Law Final Exam 1. Who owns the CadWatt Solar cell technology? What rights, if any can SSC claim on it? SSC owned the technology, because the invention related to the SSC’s business and he had used some of SSC’s resources (namely, his SSC computer and SSC training sessions) when developing it. 2. What can Pierre do to make his departure from SSC amicable? Should he have left sooner? What ongoing obligations does he have to SSC? Pierre should consider returning all the documents and electronic devices in which he had at hand. Pierre has a non-disclosure provision that prohibits Pierre from using or disclosing any confidential information that he learned while working for SSC. To leaving sooner he should†¦show more content†¦Can the company imply in its advertising that plants with large electricity demands can run exclusively on solar power collected with CadWatt Solar Cells? There are two warranties that can be implied to a product. Express and Implied warranty. The seller may disclaim any warranties of quality if it follows specifically delineated rules in the UCC designed to ensure that the buyer is aware of, and assents to the disclaimers. There is a sales agreement, which provides provisions of limited liability, no other warranties, limitation of liability, acceptance of these terms. In the case of stating if it can run exclusively of solar power collected with CadWatt Solar Cells it would only work if the statement were true. 14. Does the company need to be concerned that the property it is considering leasing for manufacturing is near a river? Yes, there can be issues when it comes to flooding in the area where the building can be affected through water damage. They can also be liable if an employee drowns in the river. Now if the company has insurance such as third party liability the company could be covered. 15. How should the company resolve a claim for assault, battery and false imprisonment arising out of an altercation with one of the company’s employees and how can the company protect itself against such claims in the future? Under the doctrine of respondeat supervisor, anShow MoreRelatedTutorial of Enterpreneur1126 Words   |  5 Pagestend to overestimate or underestimate their knowledge of the laws that pertain to starting a new firm? What does answer to this question suggest that entrepreneurs do before they start a firm? In general, entrepreneurs tend to overestimate their knowledge of the laws that pertain to starting a new firm. Before entrepreneurs start a firm, they should seek for lawyer to get some legal advice, get sources and information about the business, refer to book, or search the information thru the internetRead MoreMilton Friedman And Richard Freeman Essay932 Words   |  4 Pages Business ethics Name Institution Date Questions 1: Milton Friedman and Richard Freeman represent differences that exist on the positions held by scholars with regards to the obligations of a business firm. The major difference between the two is on the issues of corporation’s responsibilities to the society and the obligations to different groups. To whom does the corporation owe much responsibility? Friedman offers his views based on the shareholders theory. In his theory, he adoptsRead MoreDo Christian Values Have a Place in Business? Essay1048 Words   |  5 PagesPlace in Business? Business Ethics University Do Christian values have a place in business? Does oil mix with water? No it does not. This would be a typical response for most business owners in the twenty –first century. In the United States and abroad businesses have experienced mass corruption, and headlines depict the deterioration of business ethics among our growing global community. Many business owners aspire to ethical principles regarding the operations of their business but manyRead MoreBusiness Ethics And Law : Legal And Ethical Issues1213 Words   |  5 PagesLegal and Ethical Issues in Business Business ethics and law are fundamental principles that guide the way businesses operate. Business ethics are decided and formed by each company and differ from one company to another. They are the core values that business owners, managers, and employees use to conduct their daily operations. Acting in an ethical way consists of distinguishing between right and wrong and choosing what is right. 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These are two (2) of the ethics business representative follows or implement in their companies: Deontology ethics which concerned with duties and rights. Rule Utilitarian ethic which focus on the beneficial consequences of breaking the law. An associate may wan t to conduct business ethicallyRead MoreMorals Vs. Ethics : Morals And Ethics Essay1374 Words   |  6 PagesMorals vs. Ethics Morals and ethics are often thought of as interchangeable terms, and both can be applied in various situations. Morals are ultimately the â€Å"groundwork† for ethics. However, the two nouns have a distinct meaning. Morals are internal principles that a person focuses upon when deciding between right or wrong conduct. A person’s true character can be revealed by understanding that said person’s morals. Ethics are a set of rules or rules of conduct that a person follows due to socialRead MoreEssay about Business Biblical Worldview1576 Words   |  7 Pages2009). A contract is an agreement that is enforceable by the law. It is created when two or more persons agree to do something or agree to not do something (Liuzzo, 2010, pg. 79). All involved parties must be competent. A competent person is one that is of legal age and possesses normal mental health (Liuzzo, 2010, pg. 80). â€Å"All contracts are agreements, but not all agreements are contracts† (Luizzo, 2010, pg. 79). In business, contracts are used to employ people and to sell goods, and toRead MoreWhat Does Ethics Mean? 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Breast Cancer Free Essays

Informative Speech Course Title: Public Speaking Course Code: COM 101 Title: Breast Cancer Presented by: Anna Kokkoni Reg. Number: K2005444 Do you know what is the link between Kylie Minogue, Sheryl Crow, Olivia Newton-John? Let me tell you a small story before I answer this question. My aunty Irene five years ago had a really bad pain in her right breast. We will write a custom essay sample on Breast Cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now Everybody use to tell her that it’s nothing. You don’t need to go to a specialist because from stress and nervous. One day she decide and went to the doctor just to be sure that its nothing. But she didn’t receive the answer that she was awaiting. The bad news came. ‘Mrs Irene you have breast cancer’. My aunty has the same as the three ladies mentioned above. I am here to talk you about breast cancer, the risk factors, the anatomy of women breast, self examination of breasts. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women. It happens when some cells of the breast lose control of multiplication and divide uncontrollably. These cells have the ability to break – Filtration some normal anatomic barriers to breast and disperse the rest of the body Each cancer so that breast cancer is due to a genetic abnormality in a cell. Although the cause is at a level of genes, only 5-10% of breast cancers are inherited from parents. The majority of breast cancers are due to some genetic damage that occurs during life. The risk of a woman developing breast cancer increases with age. So while until the age of 39 years, the risk is just 0. 5% in ages 40-59 years the risk reaches 4% (i. e. 1 in 25 women will develop breast cancer). From age 60 and older, the risk is high as 7% (approximately 1 in 15 women). Other risk factors for breast cancer are: Heredity – the daughters, sisters and mothers of women who developed breast cancer and particularly at a young age ( How to cite Breast Cancer, Papers Breast Cancer Free Essays string(48) " risk of the cancer coming back \(breastcancer\." Breast Cancer Eva Caballero School of Health Professions Abstract Breast cancer is a disease in which malignant cells (cancer) form in the tissues of the breast (Hail, 2011). It is considered a heterogeneous disease – differing by individual, age group, and even kinds of cells within the tumors themselves (Hail, 2011). There are several types of breast carcinomas including Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (Yi-Bin David, 2011). We will write a custom essay sample on Breast Cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some methods used to diagnose breast carcinoma are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). Each stage has different prognoses with varying survival rates as well (Marissa, 2011). There are also many ways to prevent breast cancer including maintain a healthy weight, avoiding the alcohol consumption, and by getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. women, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf Metcalf, 2008). Other breast diseases besides breast cancer are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). These diseases do not necessarily lead to breast cancer and can be treated (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Keywords: – breast cancer, ducts, lobules, tumor, invasive (infiltrating carcinoma), noninvasive (noninfiltrating carcinoma), Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS), Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC), intraductal carcinoma, nonfunctioning breast tissue, estrogen, lymph nodes, mammogram, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), core biopsy, somatic mutations, fine needle aspiration biopsy, stereotactic biopsy, FGFR2, BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, metastasis, fat necrosis, fibrocystic breast disease Breast Cancer Cells are the building blocks of living things and cancer grows out of normal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer doesn’t allow normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream (Peter, 2011). Normal cells in the body follow an orderly process of growth, division, and death, this is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form (Peter, 2011). Cancer has been around since prehistoric times, and breast cancer is one of the earliest forms to have been mentioned (Eisenpreis, 1999). In the United States, breast cancer death rates are higher than those for any other cancer, besides lung cancer (breastcancer. org, 2012). Today, about 1 in 8 women (12%) will develop breast cancer in her lifetime (Martin, 2012). Breast cancer is a cancer that starts in the tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). In rare cases, breast cancer can start in other areas of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Breast cancer can be invasive or noninvasive (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Invasive meaning it has spread from the milk duct (lobule) to the other tissues in the breast (Eisenpreis, 1999). Noninvasive means that it has not yet invaded other breast tissue (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Types of Breast Cancer Breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast – the ducts, the lobules, or sometimes, the tissue in between (breastcancer. org, 2012). There are several different types of breast cancer, including breast cancer in men (breastcancer. org, 2012). Some include Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), or intraductal carcinoma, is a noninvasive breast cancer in the lining of the milk ducts that has not yet invaded nearby tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). It may progress to invasive cancer if it is left untreated (Yi-Bin David, 2011). DCIS is the earliest form of breast cancer and is usually found during a mammogram done as part of breast cancer screening (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). Because of the increased use of mammograms, the rate at which DCIS is diagnosed has increased dramatically in recent years (Mayo Clinic Staff, 011). When a woman has DCIS, she is at higher risk for the cancer coming back or also at higher risk for developing a new breast cancer than a person who has never had breast cancer before (breastcancer. org, 2012). Experts believe that 20 to 50% of women with DCIS will later develop an invasive breast cancer within 10 years of the DCIS diagnosis (Hoffman, 2010). The risk of lymph node involvement with ductal carcinoma in situ is only 1% to 2% so the lymph nodes under the arm do not need to be removed, as may be  the case with other types of breast cancer (Hoffman, 2010). In seven out of 10 cases, breast-conserving lumpectomies – instead of mastectomies – were an effective treatment option (Hoffman, 2010). This will depend upon the size of your tumor and the extent of its spread throughout your breast and the surrounding lymph nodes (Hoffman, 2010). While DCIS isn’t life-threatening, it does require treatment to prevent the condition from becoming invasive (Mayo Clinic Staff 2011). Most recurrences happen within 5 to 10 years after the first diagnosis and the chances of that happening are under 30 percent (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma is an invasive type of breast cancer that begins in the milk-producing glands (lobules) of the breast (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). When a person has ILC, this means that the cancer cells have broken out of lobule where they started and they now have the potential to spread to other areas or tissues of the body (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). This type of cancer is more difficult to se e on imaging because of the way it grows with spreading branches (Hopkins, 2012). The treatments for invasive lobular carcinoma fall into two broad categories: Local and Systemic Treatment. Local treatments treat the tumor and the areas surrounding it, such as the chest and lymph nodes (breastcancer. org, 2012). Systemic treatments travel throughout the body to destroy any type of cancer cells that may have left the original tumor and traveled to other tissues to reduce the risk of the cancer coming back (breastcancer. You read "Breast Cancer" in category "Essay examples" org, 2012). ILC cells can proceed to infiltrate fatty tissue and create a web-like mass (Stephan, 2008). This web of cancer cells may feel like a thickened area of breast tissue, and may not cause concern or pain at first (Stephan, 2008). Unfortunately, if it is left undetected, ILC can develop into a mass that is about ? inch ( 2 centimeters) to about 2 inches (5 centimeters) or bigger in size, before causing more noticeable symptoms (Stephan, 2008). Breast cancer in men is a very rare disease (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). But the truth is that boys and girls, men and women all have breast tissue (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). Men have a small amount of nonfunctioning breasts tissue (breast tissue that cannot produce milk) that is concentrated in the area directly behind the nipple on the wall of the chest (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). A type of breast cancer that has spread outside of the duct and into the surrounding tissue is called invasive or infiltrating carcinoma (ASC, 2012). Some symptoms that may occur in males developing breast cancer include lumps, changes to the nipple or breast skin, or discharge of fluid from the nipple (National Cancer Institute, 2011). Men who have an altered gene related to breast cancer have an increased risk of developing breast cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2012). The major problem is that breast cancer in men is more often than not diagnosed later than breast cancer in women because men are less likely to be suspicious of an abnormality in that area (Wax, 2012). Also, their small amount of breast tissue is harder to feel, making it more difficult to catch these cancers early, and allowing tumors to spread more quickly to the surrounding tissues (Wax, 2012). Breast cancer in men is detected the same way as breast cancer is detected in women – through self-examination, clinical examination, or mammography (x-ray of the breast) (ASC, 2012). Methods for Diagnosis Breast cancer is sometimes found after symptoms appear, but many women with early breast cancer have no symptoms (American Cancer Society, 2011). This is why getting the recommended screening tests before any symptoms develop is so important (American Cancer Society, 2011). Three types of methods used for diagnosis are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray picture of the breast and can be used to check for breast cancer in women who don’t have any signs or symptoms of the disease. (NCI, 2010) The results are recorded on x-ray film or directly into a computer for a doctor called a radiologist to examine (Webmd, 2010). There are different types of mammograms including Screening mammograms and Diagnositc mammograms (Webmd, 2010). Mammograms detect tiny bits of calcium that develop in dead cancer cells (Hoffman, 2010). As more and more cancer cells age and die, theses calcifications grow nd on the mammogram, they appear as a shadowy area (Hoffman, 2010). Current guidelines from the American College Radiology, the American Cancer Society, and the Society for Breast Imaging recommend that women receive annual mammograms starting at age 40, even if they have no symptoms or family history of breast cancer (ACR, 2010). For every 1,000 women who have screening mammogram: 100 are recalled to get more mammogr aphy or ultrasound images, 20 are recommended for needle biopsy and 5 are diagnosed with breast cancer (ACR, 2010). A mammography unit is a rectangular box that houses the tube in which x-rays are produced (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). Once it is carefully aimed at the part of the body being examined, an x-ray machine produces a small burst of radiation that passes through the body, recording an image on photographic film or a special digital image recording plate (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). A brief medical history and a history of specific problems related to the breast, such as pain or a palpable lump (one that is felt), is obtained prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). All jewelry and clothing in the chest and breast area are removed prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). The patient’s breasts are then placed on a firm flat panel and a gentle, but firm pressure is applied to the breast with another panel, resulting in compression of the breast between the two panels (Stoppler, 2011). The compression of the breast is necessary to obtain quality mammograms and spreads the breast tissue out so that the x-ray image displays the inner breast tissue with good resolution (Stoppler, 2011). Dense bone absorbs much of the radiation while soft tissue, such as muscle, fat and organs, allow more of the x-rays to pass through them (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). As a result, bones appear white on the x-ray, soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). The results of the mammogram can be given to the patient either by the radiologist at the completion of the mammogram or by the patient’s doctor who ordered the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). An abnormal mammogram does not mean you have cancer (Stoppler, 2011). In some cases, it may just be an area of thicker or denser breast tissue, a cyst, or a benign lump such as a fibro adenoma (Stoppler, 2011). Unlike mammography which uses low dose x-rays to produce an image of the breast, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses powerful magnetic fields and radio waves to create images of the breast (Imaginis, 2012). The MRI system has the ability to switch magnetic fields and radio waves to achieve views in any plane and from any orientation while x-ray mammography requires re-orientation of the breast and mammography system for each view desired (Imaginis, 2012). MRI is a huge magnet and the woman gets put in the middle of the magnet; the magnetic field is turned on and then turned off again (Eisenpreis, 1999). The way the magnetized cells return to normal gives an image (Eisenpreis, 1999). The MRI finds lumps better than it tells whether or not they are cancerous (Eisenpreis, 1999). However, MRI can be good at showing how big a cancer is, once it has been found on the mammogram (Eisenpreis, 1999). A breast biopsy removes a sample of breast tissue that is looked at under a microscope to check for breast cancer and is usually done to check a lump found during a breast examination or a suspicious area found on a mammogram, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Marshall, 2009). During a fine-needle aspiration biopsy, the doctor inserts a thin needle into a lump and removes a sample of cells or fluid (Marshall, 2009). Nowadays, doctors might have decided to do something called stereotactic biopsy, where a patient lies on a table, with her breasts hanging down (Eisenpreis, 1999). A mammogram is taken to show where the lump is and a device holding a needle quickly shoots in and removes a few cells from the lesion (Eisenpreis, 1999). There is also something called a core biopsy that uses a larger needle to take out a piece of tissue, instead of just cells (Eisenpreis, 1999). A doctor numbs your skin with a shot of numbing medicine where the biopsy needle will be inserted and once the area is numb, a small cut is made in the skin from where the needle with a special tip is inserted into breast tissue (Marshall, 2009). Three to twelve samples will be taken to acquire the most accurate results (Marshall, 2009). Classifications and Associated Prognoses The stages of breast cancer are usually expressed as a number on a scale of 0 through IV – with stage 0 describing non-invasive cancers that remain within their original location and stage IV describing invasive cancers that have spread outside the breast to other parts of the body (Marisa, 2011). Cancer stage is based on four characteristics; the size of the cancer, hether the cancer is invasive or non-invasive, whether the cancer is in the lymph nodes, whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body beyond the breast (Marisa, 2011). Sometimes doctors use the term â€Å"locally advanced† or regionally advanced† to refer to large tumors that involve the breast skin, underlying chest structures, changes to the breast’s shape, and lymph node enlargement that is visible or that the doctor can feel during an exam (Marisa , 2011). The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are: Through tissue where cancer invades surrounding normal tissue, through the lymph system where the cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body, and through the blood, where cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body (NCI, 2009). When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph nodes or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form (NCI, 2009). This process is called metastasis (NCI, 2009). The stage of the breast cancer can help the patient and the doctor understand the prognosis (the most likely outcome of the disease) and make decisions about treatment, along with all the other results in the pathology report (Marisa, 2011). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). The TNM staging system classifies cancers based on their T, N, and M stages (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"T† followed by a number 0 to 4 describes the tumor’s size and spread to the skin or to the chest wall under the breast (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"N† followed by a number from 0 to 3 indicates whether the cancer has spread to lymph nodes near the breast and, if so, how many lymph nodes are affected. The letter â€Å"M† followed by a 0 or 1 indicates whether the cancer has spread to distant organ (ACS, 2012). There are typically five stages (0 to 4) with sub-stages that indicate the prognosis for breast cancer (Lippman, 2005). Stage 0 where the carcinoma is insitu and no lymph nodes are affected had 99 percent 5 year survival rate (ACS, 2012). Stage IA also has a high rate, 92 percent, in which the tumor is equal to 2 centimeters (ACS, 2012). In stage IB, the tumor is 2 centimeters with micro metastases in 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes but the cancer has not spread to distant sites (ACR, 2012). In stage IIA, the cancer cells have moved to the ipsilateral nodes and the 5 year survival rate lowers to 82 percent (Lippman, 2012). In stage IIB, the cancer cells have spread to movable ipsilateral nodes and the tumor is over 5 centimeters (Lippman, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 65 percent (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIA, there is no evidence of a primary tumor and no distant spreading (ACS, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 47 percent (Lippman, 2005). The tumor could be between 2 and 5 centimeters but there is still no distant spreading at this point (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIB the tumor has extended to the chest wall but there is still no distant metastases (Lippman, 2005). The 5 year survival rate lowers again to a 44 percent (Lippman, 2005). In stage IV the cancer can be any size (any T) and may or may not have spread to nearby lymph nodes (any N) (ACS, 2012). It has spread to distant organs or to lymph nodes far from the breast (M1) (ACS, 2012). The most common sites of spread are the bone, liver, brain, or lung (ACS, 2012). The survival rate lowers to 14 percent (Lippman, 2005). Prevention Methods Three ways to prevent breast cancer are by maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding alcohol consumption, and getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). Mammogram screening, early diagnosis and better treatments have all contributed to the reduction in breast cancer cases by around 2 percent a year and the improved survival rate in the U. S. (Reynolds, 2010). Experts say now the focus needs to shift on improving personal lifestyle habits to prevent the disease even more (Reynolds, 2010). Early detection of breast cancer with screening mammography means that treatment can be started earlier in the course of the disease, possibly before it has spread (NCI, 2010). A medical team found an 11 percent lower risk of breast cancer in those women consuming the more healthful diet, including more whole grains, fruits and vegetables and less fatty, processed foods (Reynolds, 2010). They also found that those consuming large amounts of alcohol had a 21 percent increased risk (Reynolds, 2010). Drinking alcohol during adolescence has been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer, especially for girls with a family history of the disease (Reynolds, 2010). Exercise also plays a role in the reduction of breast cancer risk (Reynolds, 2010). In one study from the Women’s Health Initiative, as little as 1. 25 to 2. 5 hours per week of brisk walking reduced a woman’s risk by 18 percent (Reynolds, 2010). Walking 10 hours a week reduce the risk more (Reynolds, 2010). Diet and exercise can lead to weight reduction, another positive lifestyle change that can influence breast cancer disease risk (Reynolds, 2010). Many breast cancers are fueled by estrogen, a hormone produced in fat tissue (Reynolds, 2010). Experts suspect that more fat tissue equals more estrogen resulting in more cases of breast cancer that could possibly be avoided (Reynolds, 2010). Genetic ; Hereditary Influence According to researchers, the mutations in the gene, which is called FGFR2, raise the risk of breast cancer by 20 to 60 percent. (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. omen, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Women with faulty copies of the genes BRCA1 or BRCA2 have 50 percent to 85 percent chance of getting breast cancer in their lifetimes, but they are rare genes and only account for 5 percent to possibly 10 percent of breast cancer cases (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Only 7% of all breast cancers are hereditary (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Of these hereditary cancers, 45% is caused by BRCA1 while 35% is caused by BRCA2 (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Variations of the  BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, and  TP53  genes increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Chen, 2007). The  AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, and  RAD51  genes are associated with breast cancer (Chen, 2007). Cancers occur when a buildup of genetic mutations in critical genes – those that control cell growth and division or the repair of damaged DNA – allow cells to grow and divide uncontrollably to form a tumor (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). These changes, which are called somatic mutations, are not inherited (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Less commonly, gene mutations inherited from a parent increase the risk of developing cancer (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). In people with these inherited genetic changes, additional somatic mutations in other genes must occur for cancer to develop (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Additional factors that may influence a person’s risk of developing breast cancer include gender, age, ethnic background, a history of previous breast cancer, certain changes in breast tissue, and hormonal factors (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). A history of breast cancer in closely related family members is also an important risk factor, particularly if the cancer occurred at an early age (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Women who have inherited certain mutations in these genes have a high risk of developing breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and several other types of cancer during their lifetimes (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Inherited changes in several other genes, including CDH1, PTEN, STK11, and TP53, have been found to increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved (Walsh ; King, 2007). For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant patter, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person’s chance of developing cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). In other cases, the inheritance of breast cancer risk is unclear (Walsh ; King, 2007). It is important to emphasize that people inherit an increased risk of cancer, not the disease itself (Walsh ; King, 2007). Not all people who inherit mutations in these genes will develop cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). Other Breast Diseases Two other diseases found in the breast other than breast carcinoma are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Fybrocystic breast disease is a commonly used phrase to describe painful, lumpy breasts (Sacks 2011). Hormones made in the ovaries can make a woman’s breasts feel swollen, lumpy, or painful before during menstruation each month (Sacks 2011). Fibrocysitc changes in the breast with the menstrual cycle affect over half of women (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms are usually worse right before the menstrual period, and then improve after the period starts (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms can include pain in both breasts, breasts that feel swollen and heavy, pain or discomfort under the arms, and thick or lumpy breasts (Sacks, 2011). This disease can be treated with medication like acetaminophen or ibuprofen (Sacks, 2011). Breast Fat necrosis is a benign condition that can occur in your breast (Silverman. 1994). It consists of fatty tissue that has been bruised, injured, or has died (Silverman, 1994). Once fatty tissue has been injured or has died, it can gradually change into scar tissue or may collect as liquid within an oil cyst (Silverman, 1994). Fat necrosis does not lead to the development of breast cancer, but it may sometimes cause breast pain (Silverman, 1994). An area of fat necrosis in your breast may feel like a fairly hard lump, or like a section of thick skin (Silverman, 1994). The person may see some drainage from the nipple that is nearest to the bruised region (Silverman, 1994). The nipple may sometimes even pull inward a little bit or the breast skin may dimple above the lump of fat necrosis (Silverman, 1994). Each case of fat necrosis is unique, so treatments will vary but if the fat necrosis has occurred recently, using warm compresses may help it subside (Silverman, 1994). When fat necrosis causes pain, the person can use ibuprofen and aspirin, but if that doesn’t help, ask your doctor if a prescription medication may be used (Silverman, 1994). About 39,520 women in the U. S. were expected to die in 2011 from breast cancer, though death rates have been decreasing since 1990 — especially in women under 50 (â€Å"Learn about cancer,† 2011). These decreases are thought to be the result of treatment advances, earlier detection through screening, and increased awareness (â€Å"breastcancer. org,† 2012). References Peter, C. (2011, October 20). Medical news today. Retrieved from http://www. medicalnewstoday. com/info/cancer-oncology/ breastcancer. org. (n. d. ). (2012, March 14). Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/understand_bc/statistics. jsp Yi-Bin , C. , ; David , Z. (2011, 15 12). A. d. a. m. medical encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001911/ Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011, June 23). Ductal carcinoma in situ (dcis). Retrieved from http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/dcis/DS00983 Avon Foundation Breast Cancer (n. d. ). In http://www. hopkinsmedicine. org/avon_foundation_breast_center/breast_cancers_other_conditions/invasive_lobular_carcinoma. html. Stephan, P. (2008, July 24). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma. Retrieved from about. com website: http://breastcancer. about. com/od/types/p/ilc. html Dugdale, D. (2010, August 14). Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002267/ Martin, L. (2012, January 18). Breast cancer facts. WebMD. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. om/guide/breast-cancer-arm-yourself-with-facts National Cancer Insitute. (2012). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/malebreast/Patient/page1 Attebery, L. , Adams, J. H. , ; Weiss, M. (2011, november 22). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/types/male_bc/ National Cancer Institute. ( 2011). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/malebreastcancer. html Wax, A. (2011). Breast cancer in men: Symptoms, causes, treatments. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/guide/breast-cancer-men American Cancer Society. (2011, September 29). American cancer society. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedGuide/breast-cancer-diagnosis NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Marshall, S. (2010, November 12). Webmd. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/mammogram-16573 Hoffman, M. (2010 February 18). Ductal carcinoma (invasive and in situ. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/ductal-carcinoma-invasive-in-situ ACR. (2012). Mammography facts. Retrieved from http://www. ammographysaveslives. org/facts. aspx Hirshaut, Y. , ; Pressman, P. I. (2008). Breast cancer: The complete guide. (5th ed. ). New York, NY: Bantam Dell. Radiological Society of North America. (2011, June 24). Radiologyinfo. org. Retrieved from http://www. radiologyinfo. org/en/info. cfm? pg=mammo ASCO. (2011, January 26). Breast Cancer- Male Retrieved from http://www. cancer. net/patient/Cancer Types/Breast Cancer – Male/? skid= Stoppler, M. C. (2011). Medicinenet. Retrieved from http://www. medicinenet. com/mammogram/article. html Imaginis. (2012). Breast cancer mri – magnetic resonance imaging. Retrieved from http://www. maginis. com/mri-scan/magnetic-resonance-breast-imaging-mri-mr-3 Eisenpreis, B. (1999). A young woman’s guide to breast cancer prevention. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Marshall, S. (2009, April 29). Breast biopsy. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/breast-biopsy Metcalf, T. , Metcalf, G. (2008). Perspective on diseases and disorders. (1 ed. ). Michigan: Thomson Gale. Chen, S. ( 2007, April 10). Meta-analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 penetrance. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Honrado, E. , Osorio, A. , Palacios, J. , Benitez, J. (2006, September 25). Pathology and gene expression of hereditary breast tumors associated with brca1, brca2 and chek2 gene mutations. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer/show/References Thompson, D. , Easton, D. (2004, July 9). The genetic epidemiology of breast cancer genes. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Walsh, T. , King, M. (2007, February 11). Ten genes for inherited breast cancer. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Marisa , W. (2011, August 03). Stages of breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/diagnosis/staging. jsp NCI. 2009). Breast cancer treatment (pdq). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page2 Lippman, M. E. (2005). Cancer monthly. Retrieved from http://www. cancermonthly. com/cancer_basics/breast. asp American Cancer Society. (2012, March 06). Breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedG uide/breast-cancer-staging Reynolds, D. (2010, March 26). Emaxhealth. Retrieved from http://www. emaxhealth. com/1506/98/36185/one-third-breast-cancer-cases-avoided-diet-and-exercise. html NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. ov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Sacks, D. N. (2011, November 16). Fibrocystic breast disease. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000912. htm Silverman, P. (1994, July). Breast fat necrosis – symptoms, causes and treatments. Retrieved from http://breastcancer. about. com/od/whenitsnotcancer/tp/Breast-Fat-Necrosis. htm American Cancer Society. U. S. Breast cancer statistics. (2011, September 29). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/index Hail, J. (2011, 09). National breast cancer foundation, inc.. Retrieved from http://www. nationalbreastcancer. org/About-Breast-Cancer/ How to cite Breast Cancer, Essay examples Breast cancer Free Essays Genetic testing has become an extraordinary tool in the fight against breast cancer in young women. Due to advancement of scientific research, the identification of the genetic markers of disease through the collection and analysis of an individual DNA is possible today. Genetic testing can help to identify which diseases an individual is predisposed to and then, by suggesting certain life style changes or repairing or replacing the genes possible, helps that patient to avoid potential illness. We will write a custom essay sample on Breast cancer or any similar topic only for you Order Now About 10% breast cancer is termed as hereditary. A hereditary breast cancer may cause due to the age of onset of breast cancer, prevalence of other types of cancer in a family and the number of relatives suffering from cancer and their relationship with the patient. For assessing hereditary breast cancer, a genetic counselor will necessarily gaze at patient’s family’s medical information known as pedigree starts from first-degree relatives (parents, children and siblings) and then second-degree relatives(grand parents , uncles and aunts) and then third-degree relatives such as cousins. In the U. S. A, every year about 200. 000 women and 1500 men is being diagnosed with breast cancer and about 5% of these are in women in the age of 40 and under. About 12% or One in eight of U. S women aged 90 years or younger will suffer from breast cancer sometimes during her life time and 1. 4% or one in 70 will suffer from ovarian cancer and about 23000 U. S. women develop ovarian cancer each year. The U. S. Preventive services Task Force (USPSTF) suggests against routine recommendation for genetic counseling or routine breast cancer susceptibility gene (BRCA) examining for women whose family history is not associated with an augmented risk for deleterious mutations in breast cancer susceptibility gene1 (BRCA1) or breast cancer susceptibility gene 2(BCRA 2) . The USPSTF advises that women whose family history is related with an augmented risk for deleterious mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA 2 genes be referred for genetic counseling and evaluation for BRCA testing. If any woman is tested positive for a known mutation, she can select medical options to lessen the risk for cancer or diagnose disease at an early stage. It is to be borne in mind that test can only spot the two most common genes engaged in hereditary breast cancer but under certain situation, even a negative test may not rule out hereditary breast cancer in a family. It is interesting to note that not every individual who bears a mutation will suffer from cancer at a later stage and genetic testing can not discover breast cancer nor it forewarn you with certainty when you grasp cancer at some stage in your life . Undergoing genetic test may help to choose treatment methods and follow-up care for breast cancer patients and survivors. More over, if a cancer patient is the first patient to have a genetic test in a family, then test result may assist to identify the cause of hereditary cancer in a family. The main aim of this thesis is to focus how genetic test in younger women with a family history of breast cancer can help to minimize the chance of contracting breast cancer and early test results may help the young patient to undertake medical precautions to avoid in contracting such worst disease at a later stage. 2. BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE: Every living thing is gifted with the genes which may be described as nature’s blue print. Usually genes come in pair. One set of gene is passed through your mother and other set is from your father. It is the genes which determine how your body will function and grow and color of hair and eyes. Sometimes the genes may not perform well as they have some defects in them. Such gene is called mutated or altered gene. It is called inherited altered gene if a gene with mistake is passed along in family members. Certain altered genes may result in cancer and gene alterations have been found in many families with a history of breast cancer. With the availability of genetic testing commercially now, young women especially with hereditary breast cancer have to decide to go for genetic testing to determine whether they carry a mutation in BRCA 1 or BRCA 2 that enhances of chances of contracting breast or ovarian cancer. Genetics testing may affect psychosocial functioning, health practices and associations with wards and finances. Another study reveals that there is 50% probability of carrying the mutation by the children when parents tested positive for a mutation in BRCA 1 and BRCA 2. In a retrospective review of 639 women at high risk for contracting breast cancer who underwent prophylactic mastectomy between 1960 and 1993, Hartman et al. (1999) found out that a 90% reduction in the incidence of breast cancer. Prophylactic oophorectomy is a preventive method that is suggested to women with a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2. Garber, Kuntz, Schrag, Weeks (2000) estimated a 50% reduction in ovarian cancer risk after the surgery due to findings from genetic testing. As per Rebbeck (2000) prophylactic oophorectomy reduces about a 50 to 70 % breast cancer risk. Early stage detection of ovarian cancer is low and hence Prophylactic oophorectomy is often used to detect the same . As per Frank (1998) although surveillance is carried through biannual professional examination, ultrasonography and CA 125 testing to women with mutations, the actual efficacy of these surveillance measures is unknown. BCRA 1 and BCRA 2 mutations can be innate from either mother or the father. The National Cancer Institute has revealed that some factors which are independent of each other which increase the chances that a person inherits BRCA mutation and they include: 4 1. A family record of a number of (three or more) close blood relatives (sisters, daughters, mother and grandmothers, aunts) suffered with breast cancer, ovarian cancer or both. 2. A family record of a early onset ( before 50 or before menopause) breast or ovarian cancer in one or more close blood relatives (mother, daughters ,sisters , aunts or grandmothers ) 3. A family record of one or more near blood relatives (mother , sisters, grandmothers ,daughters , aunts ) 4. A family record of one or more close male blood relatives ( father, grand fathers ,brothers , sons , uncles ) 5. Jewish ancestry namely Ashkenazi (Eastern European) and a family history of breast and or ovarian cancer. It is to be noted that both maternal and parental family history is pertinent for identifying a person’s risk for breast / ovarian cancer. The earlier we diagnose, the breast cancer can be easily contained and defeated. If diagnosed late, it spreads to lymph nodes and becomes incurable. 3. Preliminary Data Each year about 39000 women and between 200 and 300 men are prone to breast cancer in UK. As per U. K. Government statistics number of people who developed breast cancer every year has increased by 70% since 1971 and 15% in the ten years to 2000. About 80 % of U. K Women contract breast cancer in the age between 60 and 64. Only 5% of breast cancers (around 2000) are diagnosed in women under the age of 40 and 2% (800) in women under 35. Almost three-quarters of women diagnosed breast cancer in 1991-1995 were alive five years later. And that increase to 78% where cancer is detected by screening . The death rate among young and middle aged due to breast cancer has come down almost a third since 1980 and three out of four women can now beat the disease. In another study it was find out a woman with a strong family history of breast / ovarian cancer and bear a germ line mutation in one of these germs is sustained to a life time risk of breast cancer about 85% and about 60% for ovarian cancer is a very alarming one. How to cite Breast cancer, Papers

Assessing Models Using Revealed Preference -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Assessing Models Using Revealed Preference? Answer: Introduction Prime Media is a media corporation that owns regional television network covering region southern and northern New South Wales, Victoria, Australia capital territory, Western Australia and Gold area of Southeastern Queensland. Company was established in year 1986 after which television license was acquired in Western Australia. It is one of the leading television networks in the broadcast market that has evolved by making considerable investments in local news programming (Primemedia.com.au 2018). It also helps in assisting and supporting community endeavors by providing valuable airtime sponsorship. Revenues are sourced by Prime limited from television advertising airtime and they have the most influential advertising opportunity in regional Australia. Free to air commercial television license is owned by Prime limited in regional Western Australia and Mildura where nine entertainment programming is broadcasted. Some other services are iShopTv and data casting television service tha t are owned by Prime Media limited (Primemedia.com.au 2018). Ownership and governance structure of company: The group has reported the name of substantial shareholders according to section 671B of the Corporation Act, 2001. Largest registered shareholder holding 21.22% of ordinary shares is HSBC Custody Nominees Australia Limited and all the substantial shareholders have more than 5% of shareholdings. Substantial shareholders having shareholding higher than 5% of shareholding includes Perpetual limited having 14.14% shareholdings, Network investment holdings having shareholding of 11.38%, Ash blue Holding Pty limited having 11.38% of shareholdings, North Aston Pty limited having 11.38% of shareholdings and IOOF holdings limited having 8.216% of shareholdings (Primemedia.com.au 2018). The governance of prime media incorporates members of board of directors that consists of majority of independent directors and non-executive directors. Non-executive directors of Prime Media group are Ian R. Neal, Peter J.Macourt and Cass OConnor and Alexander A. Hamill is non-executive director who retired on 30th September 2016. John K Hartigan is the non-executive chairman and Ian C. Audsley is the chief executive officer of Prime Media group limited. Some of the directors have relevant interest in the ordinary shares of company and they include Ian C. Audsley holding 621756 ordinary shares, Ian R. Neal holding 40000 shares and Cass OConnor holding 75000 shares (Primemedia.com.au 2018). From the analysis of annual report of prime Media, it has been ascertained that surname of any substantial shareholders is not same as that of board members, Chairman and CEO of organization and this depicts that there is no presence of owner in governance of firms. Furthermore, no shareholders ha ving more than 5% of share capital are involved in governance of firm. Calculation of performance ratios: $0.000 $0.000 $0.000 $0.000 Trend Particulars` 2014 2015 2016 2017 2014 2015 2016 2017 Net Profit after Tax (NPAT) A 31188 35621 -93578 36244 -100.0% -114.2% 300.0% -116.2% Total Assets (TA) B 317673 304484 172032 155532 100.0% 95.8% 54.2% 49.0% Ordinary Equity (OE) C 162240 173876 62231 67206 100.0% 107.2% 38.4% 41.4% Total Liabilities D 155433 130608 109801 88326 100.0% 84.0% 70.6% 56.8% Return on Assets (ROA) E= A/B 9.82% 11.70% -54.40% 23.30% -100.0% -119.16% 554.06% -237.36% Return on Equity (ROE) F=A/C 19.22% 20.49% -150.37% 53.93% -100.0% -106.57% 782.24% -280.54% Debt Ratio G=D/B 0.489 0.429 0.638 0.568 100.0% 87.67% 130.45% 116.07% $0.000 $0.000 $0.000 $0.000 Trend Particulars` 2014 2015 2016 2017 2014 2015 2016 2017 EBIT A 46586 50772 -81305 51688 -100.00% -108.99% 174.53% -110.95% Total Assets B 317673 304484 172032 155532 100.00% 95.85% 54.15% 48.96% Net Profit after Tax C 31188 35621 -93578 36244 -100.00% -114.21% 300.04% -116.21% Owner's Equity D 162240 173876 62231 67206 100.00% 107.17% 38.36% 41.42% Return on Equity E=(A/B)x(C/A)x (B/D) 19.22% 20.49% -150.37200% 53.929709% -100.00% -106.57% 782.24% -280.54% Variable TA/OE indicates total assets divided by ordinary equity and the relationship between return on assets and return on equity is considerably impacted by this particular variable. An increase in amount of total assets will cause ROA on to decrease if the profit is remaining constant. However, an increase in profits will cause ROA to increase if the magnitude of increase in profits is more than increase in total assets amount. Return on equity on other hand, will increase when there is increase in amount of profits reported along with increase in total equity (Brotherson et al. 2015). However, magnitude of increase in profits should be more than that of total equity reported. From the computation of ROA and ROE, it can be inferred from the figures that ROE is more than ROA throughout the year of analysis. ROE is significantly higher than ROA for two consecutive years that is 2014 and 2015 because the amount of ordinary assets increased and total assets amount decreased (Gotze et al. 2015). For financial year 2016, value of ordinary equity has reduced drastically compared to total assets that had led to lower value of ROE as against ROA. Value of ROE in the current financial year is more than that of ROA. Graph with the description of results: The above graph depicts the monthly share price of Prime media group limited for the period of two years that is 2015 to 2017. It can be inferred from the graph that the share price is not highly volatile. However, they are more or less fluctuating than the value of ordinaries index. In the initial year of analysis that during 2016, share price line was closely correlated with that of ordinaries index line. In the beginning of year 2017, share price of prime media went above the ordinaries index line and it declined below the ordinaries index during the seventh month of year 2017. Therefore, it can be said that prime media share price was not volatile during the analysis period. Significant factors influencing the share price of Prime Media group limited: The rise in share price above the ordinaries index in the beginning of year 2017 was due to releasing of media report of prime being the leading regional television network having audience share of 30.6% across the areas of operation. This media release was responsible for increase in share price and going on its peak for over two month and thereafter declining and crossing below the ordinaries index line in the beginning of second half year of 2017. Share price started rising in the end of year when it aired number one program and making it most watched hitting at night across its region of broadcasting (Zopounidis et al. 2015). Local communities were impacted by exposing shocking reality of death and life on regional roads and this news had peaked audience viewers and shares of commercial audience. Introduction of important reform bill enhanced the commercial viability of media business that lead to diversity of voices and increased community opinions (Elmassri et al. 2016). Rise i n share price during year 2016 was attributable to recording of peak audience resulting from most watched television. In nutshell, many factors are responsible for influencing the share price of prime media group limited is related to its several broadcasting services. Continued growth in advertising revenue and audience is also responsible for influencing the share price of company. Calculation of Beta values and expected rate of returns: Calculated value of beta of prime media group limited is 0.59112. Computation of required rate of return is done using capital asset price generating model with a market risk premium of 6% and risk free rate of 4%. Particulars Amount Beta of the company A 0.59112 Risk Free Rate B 4% Market Risk Premium C 6% Required Rate of Return D=B+[Ax(C-B)] 5.18% Required rate of return for prime media group limited stood at 5.18%. The value of beta of prime group is computed at 0.59112 that is indicative of the fact that value of stock will be less variable compared to market index. It depicts that stock if defensive against the down and ups of entire stock market that is in times of change, stock moves less than the market index (Berk and Van Binsbergen 2016). Whether the company has adopted defensive or conservative investment is depicted by value of beta and it shows that, it has chosen a conservative investment strategy. Weighted average cost of capital: Computation of weighted average of capital is done by computing the estimated cost of capital and the table below depicts the WACC. Particulars Amount Weight age Cost Return Rate Tax Rate WACC Total Long Term Debt 43540 39.32% 2542 5.84% 30.00% 1.61% Total Equity 67206 60.68% 5.18% 3.14% TOTAL 110746 100% 4.75% For the evaluation of prospective investment, WACC is regarded as appropriate because the risk associated with project is same as risk in which computation is done. Higher weighted average cost of capital is perceived to be associated with higher risks by management when they make any new investments in new products. Therefore, for the expansion of business, higher WAC would be justified. For the riskier investment, investors would be requiring higher returns and for undertaking risky projects, companies will be raising capital and thereby such projects will have higher cost of capital compared to making investment in safer projects (Lane and Rosewall 2015). It can be inferred from the discussion that riskier projects will have higher WACC attached with it compared to safer projects that will have lower WACC attached with it. Debt ratios for the past two years: Debt ratio of prime media group limited for the two consecutive years that is 2016 and 2017 is computed at 0.638 and 0.568 respectively. This fall in debt ratio in the current year is attributable to decline in total amount of liabilities reported on the balance sheet. Yes, it can be seen from the analysis of annual report of company that effort was taken to improve the gearing ratio, as there was repayment of its borrowings in year 2017. Hence, it can be inferred that company is working towards maintenance of optimum capital structure. Yes, directors report presented in the annual report provides with a discussing about the capital structure. Secured bank loan facility decreased from $ 73402000 in year 2016 to $ 53540000 in year 2017. Moreover, there was reduction in debt facility limit to $ 80 million. The capital structure of firm appears to be stable in recent years due to their efforts for improving their gearing ratio (Titman et al. 2017). Dividend policy: Final dividend that is paid to shareholders is based on the core net profit after tax. Dividend payments are not entitled to long-term incentives. Recognition of dividend revenue is done when the right to receive payments is established by group. The group can adjust dividend payments to shareholders when the required adjustment is to be done to the capital structure (McNeil et al. 2015). Letter recommendation: The analysis of inclusion of stocks of Prime Media group limited is done by evaluating the financial report of recent years in respect to several areas such as its dividend payment, profitability ratio and cost of capital. It has been ascertained that leverage of company has improved in the recent year due to reduction in overall liabilities attributable to company. Moreover, return on assets and return on equity has also witnessed increasing figures indicating that group has been efficiently utilizing their assets and total equity capital. However, year 2016 witnessed negative profits that have influenced their efficiency and profitability position. It was a temporary disruption resulting from some generation of loss in that particular year. Furthermore, required rate of return computed for company is higher than weighted cost of capital. Value of beta is indicative of the fact that company has followed conservative investment strategy (Fitri et al. 2015). It indicates that the stoc k of Prime media group will help in reducing risk exposure to market if the investors include it in a portfolio of high beta value stocks. Furthermore, prime media has its operation in media industry and it has muted reactions to market shocks. The volatility of company is less relative to broad movements in market along with consistent beta value (Chittenden and Derregia 2015). Investors seeking investment in this stock by incorporating it into their investment portfolio would be benefitted due to lower risks during the times of economic decline. Performance of company has been more or less consistent throughout the year compared to market performance. Therefore, from the analysis of all the factors mentioned above, it is recommended to investors to make investment in stocks of Prime media group limited and expanding his or her portfolio in positive aspects. References list: Berk, J.B. and Van Binsbergen, J.H., 2016. Assessing asset pricing models using revealed preference.Journal of Financial Economics,119(1), pp.1-23. Brotherson, W.T., Eades, K.M., Harris, R.S. and Higgins, R.C., 2015. 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